Credits
The heart of crystalline materials
IMT, École des Mines d'Albi-Carmaux
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Architecture and Cohesion of Solids
Interatomic bonding
Bonding forces and energies
Variation in cohesion energy of a crystal as a function of atomic spacing
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Year of discoverery, atomic number and cohesion energy of elements
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Notions of order and disorder
Complete disorder: gases
Probability of finding an atom at a distance d from another atom in a gas and two-dimensional representation of atoms in a gas
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Perfect order: crystalline solids
Probability of finding an atom at a distance d from another atom in a crystal and two-dimensional representation of atoms in a crystalline solid
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Amorphous solids
Probability of finding an atom at a distance d from another atom in an amorphous solid and two-dimensional representation of atoms in an amorphous solid
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Crystallography
Crystal lattices
Definitions
Crystal lattice, elementary pattern and crystal structure
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Unit cell of a three-dimensional lattice defined by the 3 primitive vectors a, b and c
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Bravais lattices
Cubic system
Hexagonal system
Orthorhombic system
Triclinic system
Monoclinic system
Tetragonal system
Rhombohedral system
Conclusion
Crystal direction and planes
Crystal directions
Node coordinates in a lattice defined by primitive vectors
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Crystal planes
Examples of crystal planes and Miller indices
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Some specific relationships
Structures of solids
Solids with metallic bonding
Body-centred cubic structure
Body-centred cubic structure (unit cells nodes, representation according to the hard sphere model, and plane (110))
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Face-centred cubic structure (FCC)
Face-centred cubic structure (unit cells nodes, representation according to the hard sphere model, and plane (111))
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Close-packed hexagonal structure (CPH)
Close-packed hexagonal structure (representation according to the hard sphere model), and base plane
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Solids with covalent bonding
Solids with ionic bonding
Typical crystal structures of ionic compounds
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Structure of polymers
C2H4 monomer and macromolecular chain (C2H4)n
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Polymerisation by condensation (polycondensation)
Polymerisation by condensation of nylon 6-6: a) Monomers, b) Formation of nylon 6-6, c) Polymerisation chain reaction
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Classification of polymers
Amorphous (random coil) and semi-crystalline polymer structure
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Properties related to the crystal structure
Thermal expansion
Dissymmetry of both bonding force and cohesion energy around the equilibrium interatomic distance
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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A few orders of magnitude
X-rays and Crystals
Generalities on X-rays
X-ray production
Principle
The X-ray spectrum
X ray spectrum showing the intensity versus the wavelength for various accelerating voltage V Diagram of the molybdenum spectrum as a function of voltage applied V
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Characteristic rays
Nomenclature
X-ray tubes
X-ray absorption
Change in absorption coefficient versus wavelength and principle of filtering to produce monochromatic X-rays
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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X-ray vs material interactions
Various mechanisms of interaction between x-rays and materials
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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X-ray detection
Counters
Geiger counter
X-ray crystallography
History
Bragg's law
The main experimental methods
The Laue method
The Laue method in transmission (a) and back-diffraction (b)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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The Debye-Sherrer, or powder, method
Method using a counter diffractometer
Defects in Solids
Point defects
Point defects in crystals: (a) vacancy, (b) interstitial atom, (b') self-interstitial and (c) substitutional atom
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Frenkel and Schottky defects
Point defects in ionic crystals (NaCl): a) presence of two vacancies with opposing charges (Shottky defect), b) formation of an interstitial-vacancy pair (Frenkel defect)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Linear defects
History
Slip traces : transmission electron micrograph showing slip traces at the surface of an Aluminium-Silicon - Magnesium alloy (6056)
vidéo de François Delmas, CEMES (Toulouse)
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Slip traces on the surface of a plastically deformed single crystal superalloy and representation of these traces at the atomic scale
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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(a) Shear relative to two atomic planes in a uniformly deformed crystal; (b) shear stress as a function of relative displacement of the planes in relation to their equilibrium position. The dotted line tangent to the origin of the curve defines the shear modulus.
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Slip directions and planes in FCC, BCC and HCP structures
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Geometric description
Edge dislocations
Screw dislocations
Structure of a screw dislocation: the vertical line passing through A that marks the location of the dislocation is surrounded by deformed material
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Burgers vector
Burgers circuit around an edge dislocation and a screw dislocation
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Closed dislocation loops
Arbitrarily-shaped dislocation loop (E = edge character, S = screw character)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Slip resulting from the extension of a loop in its plane
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Prismatic loops
Prismatic dislocation loop (a, b and c) of interstitial type or produced by addition of a portion of the atomic plane, (d) of vacancy type or produced by removal of an atomic plane
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Dislocation movement
Introduction
Animation permettant de visualiser le glissement par propagation d'une dislocation
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Cross-sectional representation slip resulting from dislocation movement
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Displacement and deformation produced by an edge dislocation
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Dislocation climb via (a) addition of an atom to the extra half-plane and (b) removal of an atom from the extra half-plane
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Displacement and deformation produced by a screw dislocation
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Peierls stress
Dislocation dynamics
Orowan's law
Elastic properties of dislocations
Generalities on elasticity
Stress fields associated with dislocations
Sketch of a hollow elastic cylinder displaced to produce a stress configuration analogous to that encountered for an edge dislocation
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Sketch of a hollow elastic cylinder displaced to produce a stress configuration analogous to that encountered for a screw dislocation
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Normal stress and shear stress around an edge dislocation
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Multiplication of dislocations
Curvature of a dislocation
Equilibrium of a dislocation under the effect of shear stress in its slip plane
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Frank-Read mechanism
Multiplication of dislocations by the Frank-Read mechanism (Burgers vector in the plane of the image)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Observation of dislocations
Principle for creating a contrast using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and TEM image of a dislocation loop in 6056 alloy (Aluminum - Magnesium – Silicon)
Arnaud Coujou et Philippe Lours, Centre d'Élaboration des Matériaux et d'Études Structurales.
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Bi-dimensional defects
Grain boundaries
Stacking faults and twins
Stack of compact planes {111} in the FCC structure, (cross-section perpendicular to (111) dense planes and (110) dense directions). Dark atoms are in the (100) plane of the image, light atoms are in the planes immediately above or below the image plane
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Superlattice intrinsic stacking fault in a FCC structure: sketch and transmission electron microscograph of a defect
photographie de Arnaud Coujou et Philippe Lours, Laboratoire de microscopie et structure des matériaux, Université Paul Sabatier.
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Schematic representation of a twin in the FCC structure and optical micrograph of a stainless steel (twinning is shown as bands with different shades of grey)
photographie de Serge Tovar, ICA Albi - École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Three-dimensional defects
Different types of precipitates: coherent and incoherent
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Alloys and Phase Diagrams
Solid solutions
Interstitial Solid Solutions
Face-Centred Cubic Structure
Octahedral sites
Tetrahedral sites
Body Centred Cubic structure
Octahedral sites
Tetrahedral sites
Conclusion
BCC structure, arrangement of octahedral and tetrahedral sites
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Close-packed hexagonal structure
Octahedral sites
Octahedral interstitial site in an HCP structure
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Tetrahedral sites
Tetrahedral interstitial site in HCP lattice
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Solubility of atoms in interstitial position
Maximum solubility (atomic %) of interstitial elements in various metals
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Substitutional Solid Solutions
Ordered Solutions
a) FCC lattice (L 10); b) FCC lattice (L 12); c) BCC lattice (L 2)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Phase Diagrams
General
Case of Eutectic Transformation
Binary phase diagram showing a eutectic reaction, and, in insert, the Al-Si diagram
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Alloys where 0 <= X <= X(S1)
Case of a eutectic diagram / solidification of an alloy with composition X where 0 <= X <= X(S1)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Thermal cycling across the solvus temperature of an AlGe alloy monitored in situ in a transmission electron microscope
vidéo de Philippe Lours, CROMEP - ENSTIMAC
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Alloys where X(S1) < X < X(S3)
Alloys where X = X(E)
Case of a eutectic diagram: solidification of an alloy with composition X where X = X(E)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Alloys where X(S1) < X < X(E)
Case of a eutectic diagram: solidification of an alloy with composition X where X(S1) < X < X(E)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Segregation Phenomena
Phase diagram showing the formation of eutectics due to minor segregation
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Solidification at the scale of the ingot or the cast part
Macrograph of a refractory cast steel and diagram of crystallization zones on the scale of the ingot
photographie de Stéphane Baleix, Serge Tovar et Philippe Lours, ICA Albi - École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Phase transformations
Diffusion
Cu-Ni diffusion couple; distribution, as a function of time, of Cu and Ni after diffusion annealing
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Diffusion mechanisms
Phenomenological diffusion laws: Fick's equations
Fick's first law
Fick's second law
Some Applications
Oxide layer growth
Metal in contact with an oxidising atmosphere and micrography of an oxide NiO grown on the surface of pure Ni heated to 1300°C
photographie de Y. Qi et Philippe Lours, ICA Albi - École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Diffusion of a thin layer
Superficial concentration maintained constant
Curves C(x) for a semi-infinite specimen in contact with a constant superficial concentration
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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A/B pair (cladding)
Phase transformations
Nucleation and growth of a new phase
Conditions for the appearance of stability in spherical nuclei
Variation in free energy as a function of nucleus radius
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Heterogeneous nucleation
Dendrites formed during solidification of cast martensitic steel X30Cr13
photographie de Karine Bavard et Philippe Lours, CROMEP - ENSTIMAC
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TTT diagrams
a) Phase transformation rate is the product of the germination rate and the growth rate ; b) Transformation curve in the plane (T, t)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Schematic representation of TTT diagrams: a) In relation to phase transformation isotherm; b) To determine, at this temperature, the time needed to attain conversion rates of 1% and 99%, i.e. ts and tf respectively (transformation start and finish)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Diffusionless transformations
TTT diagram showing the formation of glass or crystal depending on the cooling rate
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Martensitic transformation in steels; a) TTT curve, Ms and Mf are the martensitic transformation start and finish temperatures b) martensite structure (FeM)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Material stressed, material strained
Materials subject to static stress
Tensile curve
Engineering stress and strain
True stress and strain
Elasticity, plasticity and behaviour law
Elastic behaviour
plastic behaviour
dislocations multiply
Stress-strain curve at high temperatures: no strain hardening, the density of dislocations does not increase with deformation
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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dislocations recombine
Principle of dislocations annihilation by recombination
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Ductility, fragility and the ductile-brittle transition
Schematic representation of brittle fracture using the spring model
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Stress concentration and expression of stress at the tip of a notch
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Evolution in ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, necking and impact strength energy for a body-centred cubic steel around the ductile-to-brittle transition
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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fracture surfaces
Classification of fractures according to kinetics
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Classification of fractures according to observation
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Ductile fracture
Serge Tovar et Philippe Lours, Institut Clément Ader, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Brittle fracture by cleavage
Serge Tovar et Philippe Lours, Institut Clément Ader, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Brittle fracture by decohesion
Serge Tovar et Philippe Lours, Institut Clément Ader, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Relationship between stress, the ductile or brittle character of the material and the macroscopic morphology of the fracture surfaces: tension
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Relationship between stress, the ductile or brittle character of the material and the macroscopic morphology of the fracture surfaces: compression
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Relationship between stress, the ductile or brittle character of the material and the macroscopic morphology of the fracture surfaces: torsion
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Relationship between stress, the ductile or brittle character of the material and the macroscopic morphology of the fracture surfaces: bending
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Residual stresses
Notions of fracture mechanics
Stress intensity factor
Rupture mode by crack opening, sliding or tearing
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Toughness
Schematic of a CT specimen while crack propagates
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Material strength versus fracture mechanics approach
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Multi-scale approach adopted in fracture mechanics
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Fatigue behaviour
Overall approach: Wölher curves
Description of different types of fatigue loading (Rsigma: stressratio)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Stress-strain hysteresis loop for a X38CrMoV5 steel (H11)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Manson Coffin curves (H11-H13 steel and INCO718 tested at 550 °C)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Differential approach: Paris law
Damage tolerance test: crack propagation in an aluminium copper alloy (2024)
J. Xvereb, M. Chevallier et Philippe Lours, Institut Clément Ader, Mines-Albi, 2014.
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Crack initiation, propagation and failure analysis
Fatigue failure: initiation of a surface crack
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Fatigue failure: intrusion-extrusion phenomenon
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Fracture surface in fatigue for a X38CrMoV5 steel
Sabine Leroux et Philippe Lours, Institut Clément Ader, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Fracture surface in fatigue for a X38CrMoV5 steel
Sabine Leroux et Philippe Lours, Institut Clément Ader, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Fracture surface in fatigue for an IN718 specimen tested at 550°C
Fabio Taina, Denis Delagnes et Philippe Lours, Institut Clément Ader, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Fatigue striations for an IN718 specimen tested at 550°C
Fabio Taina, Denis Delagnes et Philippe Lours, Institut Clément Ader, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Fatigue striations in a carbon steel
Serge Tovar et Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Fatigue damage
Creep behaviour
Difference between creep and elasticity : importance of temperature
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Turbine blades, service temperature and possible creep
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Justification for choosing titanium instead of aluminium for supersonic aeronautical applications
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Creep tests
Microstructural mechanisms
Scanning electron micrograph showing showing grains and grain boudaries in a nickel based superalloy
Fabio Tania, Denis Delagnes et Philippe Lours, Institut Clément Ader, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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High resolution transmission electron micrographs of an Al-Al grain boundary and an Al-Ge phase boundary
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Climb of edge dislocations assisted by vacancy diffusion
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Formation of voids and intergranular creep fracture (FeCrAl alloy - ODS – Oxide Dispersion Strengthened – obtained by powder metallurgy)
Sabine Leroux et Philippe Lours, Institut Clément Ader, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Evolution of turbine blade microstructures: macrographic view
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Evolution of turbine blade microstructures: schematic representation of grain structure
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Evolution of turbine blade microstructures: relation between grain structure and increased creep life
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Directional solidification: principle of the lost wax casting process with grain selector developed for single crystal solidification
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Larson-Miller parameters
Larson-Miller parameters for nickel-based superalloys manufactured using equiaxe solidification (IN100), directional solidification (DS200) and single crystal solidification (AM1)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Stress-time to failure isothermal curves for a polycrystalline nickel-based superalloy
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Stress versus temperature for different times to failure
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Variation in time to failure as a function of temperature for different levels of arbitrarily selected stress
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Hardening methods
Hardening without heat treatment
Solid solution strengthening
Face-centred cubic Bravais lattice and octahedral interstitial sites
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Strain (or work) hardening
Hardening with heat treatment
Precipitation hardening of aluminium alloys
Heat treatment for precipitation hardening of aluminum alloys: schematic phase diagram, solution treatment temperature, initial microstructure (room temperature) and microstructure of the solutionized alloy (T > T2)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Precipitation hardening heat treatment of aluminium alloys: schematic representation of the microstructure at the atomic scale (solution-treated alloy)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Thermal cycling across the solvus temperature of an AlGe alloy monitored in situ in a transmission electron microscope
vidéo de Philippe Lours, CROMEP - ENSTIMAC
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Precipitation hardening heat treatment of aluminium alloys: quenching that generates a metastable structure not shown in the phase diagram
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Precipitation hardening heat treatment of aluminium alloys: schematic representation of the microstructure at the atomic scale (quenched alloy: identical to the solution-treated alloy)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Precipitation hardening heat treatment of aluminium alloys: tempering temperature and schematic representation of the microstructure at the atomic scale
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Precipitation hardening heat treatment of aluminium alloys: schematic representation of the microstructure at the atomic scale (tempered alloy)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Tempering of precipitation hardening aluminium alloys : principle of treatment using a stationary temperature gradient to determine optimal tempering temperatures
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Tempering of precipitation hardening aluminium alloys: change in hardness (or yield strength) as a function of tempering temperature (or tempering time)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Tempering of precipitation hardening aluminium alloys: Mg2Si precipitates formed in 6056 alloy (AlMgSi) (high resolution TEM image)
Armand Coujou et Philippe Lours, Centre d'Élaboration des Matériaux et d’Études Structurales.
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Tempering of precipitation hardening aluminium alloys : pinning-unpinning of a dislocation on Mg2Si precipitates (6056 alloy – in situ TEM sequence)
Armand Coujou et Philippe Lours, Centre d'Élaboration des Matériaux et d'Études Structurales.
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Hardening through martensitic transformation of steels
Scanning electron micrograph showing the characteristic microstructure of martensite in steel X38CrMoV5
Serge Tovar, Denis Delagnes et Philippe Lours, Institut Clément Ader, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Schematic CCT diagram, Jominy specimen and associated hardness profiles (domains III, II and I represent respectively the cooling rate domains giving rise to the formation of martensite, intermediate composites, or ferrite and cementite stable phases)
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Jominy hardness profile for C38, 38CrMo4 and 35NiCrMo16 steels
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Tensile properties of 35NiCrMo16 steel as a function of tempering temperature
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Evolution of $R_{e \, 0,2}$, $R_m$, $A\%$ and $Z\%$ of 35NiCrMo16 steel as a function of tempering temperature
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Evolution of $K_{\rm cu}$ of 35NiCrMo16 steel as a function of tempering temperature
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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Terminological analogies and metallurgical differences between hardening by precipitation and hardening by martensitic transformation
Philippe Lours, École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux, 2014.
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